Professional Reports
Highlights
- As a broad genre of professional communication, reports are flexible, diverse, and represent a range of different forms, contents, purposes, and audiences.
- In most professional contexts, there are two main categories for reports, regardless of their specific function or type—informational and analytical.
- Informational reports inform and/or present details of events, activities, individuals, products, or conditions without analysis.
- Analytical reports present information with analysis to solve problems, demonstrate relationships, or make recommendations.
- Successful reports provide relevant information in a coherent narrative; they do not simply list information about the subject. They give the reader a clear picture and a solid understanding of the subject of the document.
Preface: Report as Genre
In the very first week of the semester, you thought about genre as part of a rhetorical approach—as part of a PAGOS plan. To review:
What is a genre?: A genre is a type or category that has particular characteristics, elements, content, or formats. Horror is a genre of film. Pop is a genre of music. Haiku is a subgenre of poetry, and poetry is a genre of writing. In this class, we will use “genre” loosely to mean a “type” of writing–such as email, letter, report, etc.–that has particular characteristics common to most or all of the examples of that genre.
What are genre conventions? Genre conventions are the common characteristics—or “rules”—that are typical among members of a particular genre. Horror films usually employ scary music and dim lighting—so scary music and dim lighting are conventions of the horror genre of film.
According to Richard Johnson-Sheehan and Charles Payne in Writing Today, there are five important things to remember about genres
In addition to what’s above, you should keep in mind that “report” is a broad, flexible genre (or category) of communications—reports come in all shapes, sizes, depths, formats, and designs. Some reports are defined by their parts, others are defined by their purpose or audience, and others are defined by other things entirely. While some categories of reports share common components or broad purposes, like genres, reports “are not fixed or rigid patterns to be followed mechanically. They are not templates into which we insert sentences and paragraphs” (Johnson-Sheehan and Payne, Writing Today, 1).
Introduction
Reports can come in many forms, from a two-page progress report memo letting your manager know of your progress on a larger project, to a 150-page report examining the causes of a problem in your company and making recommendations for a solution. In your professional career, you might have to write an expense report that catalogs your spending during a business trip or a feasibility report that presents your assessment about whether your business should go forward with a proposed action (anything from buying a new microwave for the break-room to opening a new storefront).
Reports may be based on primary research, secondary research, tertiary research (often a combination) and can include descriptions, observations, results, surveys, market analysis, feasibility reporting, product research, and information from other sources. The data required will depend on the type of report, the purpose, and the audience to whom the report is directed.
Broadly, most reports are either more informational or analytical. Informational reports inform and/or present details of events, activities, individuals, products, or conditions without analysis. Analytical reports present information with analysis to solve problems, demonstrate relationships, or make recommendations.
While reports represent a broad genre with a set of common features, the diversity of types, audiences, and purposes mean there are no universal guidelines. Writers must make a number of decisions about content, scope, detail, research, organization, style, and too many choices, variables, and approaches to mention here.
Consider this scenario:
In a recent staff meeting, a coworker complains about the “junk mail” left in his department mailbox. Other colleagues echo the complaint, offering examples of finding mail around the office unrelated to work. Recent examples include a flyer offering free puppies to a good home, a request for child care, someone selling a car, and discount coupons to a play starring an accountant in another department. Your supervisor suggests the excessive paper mail isn’t limited to non-work items, but includes work-related items such as the employee newsletter, two or three line memos (which waste a whole page), and bi-weekly printouts of employee pay stubs.
Your supervisor thinks it might be a good idea to cut down on the amount of paper mail in the department, but he doesn’t want to deal with it. When he asks for ideas, you suggest that employees could request to have their pay stubs printed or they could opt to access them online. Your boss says, “Great idea, but what about all the other mail?” When you respond by saying you’d have to think about it, your supervisor says “Excellent. Write something up and have it to me by next week.”
What are you supposed to do now? What does “write something up” mean?
In this situation, you have a few pieces of information, a few ideas, and very few guidelines. You could write something short like an email with a few of your own ideas or you could research and compile a 50 page report that includes the benefits and drawbacks of paper reduction supported by research, includes a poll of current employees to gauge interest and possible participation, and ultimately, forwards recommendations about different ways to reduce paper, an analysis of potential costs vs. savings, and steps to implementation.
There are many MANY different types of reports, and there are generally accepted guidelines for writing all of them. However, in most cases, you have to figure out what type of report is to write, what components to include, what level of formality you’ll use… and all of the other decisions that go into writing professionally.
Returning to the “paper reduction” example, let’s take a look at some of the many variables that you would have to think through before you sit down to write.
- What kind of report will you write?
- What type of research will you include? What will be its scope?
- Will you conduct a survey of your office to gather their opinions?
- What methods will you use to determine potential solutions? How many options will you explore?
- What criteria will you use to compare potential options?
- What sections might you include in your report?
- Will you ask for help from other employees?
- Will you simply discuss different options or will you forward a recommendation?
Broad Categories of Reports
| keywords suggesting an | keywords suggesting an | keywords suggesting an | keywords suggesting a |
| expository | analytical | argumentative | propositional |
| informational report |
analytical report |
persuasive report |
problem-solving report |
| explain | classify | interpret | take a position |
| define | analyze | defend | alleviate |
| describe | compare | determine | assess |
| review | examine | justify | ease |
| inform | explain | refute | propose |
| report | diagnose | propose | solve |
| investigate | recommend |
What Is a Report?
Reports are documents designed to record and convey information to the reader. Reports are part of any business or organization (from credit reports to police reports) and they serve to document specific information for specific audiences. The type of report is often identified by its primary purpose or function, as in an accident report, a laboratory report, a sales report, or even a book report. Reports are often analytical (involving the rational analysis of information). Sometimes reports simply “report the facts” with no analysis at all. Other reports summarize past events, present current data, and forecast future trends. While a report may have conclusions, propositions, or even a call to action, the demonstration of analysis is a primary function.
Types of Reports
Reports come in all sizes, but are typically longer than a page and somewhat shorter than a book. The type of report depends on its function—its essential purpose—often indicated in the purpose statement. The report function will also influence the inclusion of written and visual content, style of writing, and length.
In addition to varying by function, reports also vary by style and tradition. Within your organization, there may be employer-specific expectations that need to be addressed to meet audience expectations. Since this is a classroom situation, however, this course material will discuss reports in general terms, including common elements, points of distinction, and best practices.
Informational or Analytical Report?
There are two main categories for reports, regardless of their specific function or type. An informational report informs or instructs and presents details of events, activities, individuals, or conditions without analysis. An example of this type of “just the facts” report is a police accident report. The report will note the time, date, place, contributing factors like weather, and identification information for the drivers involved in an automobile accident. It does not establish fault or include judgemental statements. You should not see “Driver was falling down drunk” in a police accident report. Instead, you would see “Driver failed sobriety tests and breathalyzer test and was transported to the station for a blood sample.” The police officer is not a trained medical doctor and is therefore not licensed to make definitive diagnoses, but can collect and present relevant information that may contribute to that assessment.
The second type of report is called an analytical report. An analytical report presents information with a comprehensive analysis to solve problems, demonstrate relationships, or make recommendations. An example of this report may be a field report by a Public Health Agency of Canada physician from the site of an outbreak of the H1N1 virus, noting symptoms, disease progression, steps taken to arrest the spread of the disease, and recommendations about the treatment and quarantine of subjects.
Common Reports and Their Functions
Common reports may be informational or analytical depending on the audience’s needs. Some common types and their functions are below.
| Type | Function |
|---|---|
| Benchmark Report | Establish criteria and evaluate alternatives by measuring against the established benchmark criteria |
| Case Study | Represent, analyze, and present lessons learned from a specific case or example |
| Comparative Advantage Report | Discuss competing products or services with an analysis of relative advantages and disadvantages |
| Compliance Report | Document and indicate the extent to which a product or service is within established compliance parameters or standards |
| Cost-Benefit Analysis | Communicate costs and benefits of products or services |
| Decision Report | Make recommendations to management and become tools to solve problems and make decisions |
| Feasibility Study | Analyze problems and predict whether current solutions or alternatives will be practical, advisable, or produced the desired outcome(s) |
| Field Study Report | Describe one-time events, such as trips, conferences, seminars, as well as reports from branch offices, industrial and manufacturing plants |
| Financial Report | Communicate status and trends from a finance perspective |
| Instruction Manual | Communicate step-by-step instructions on the use of a product or service |
| Laboratory Report | Communicate the procedures and results of laboratory activities |
| Literature Review | Present summaries of the information available on a given subject |
| Needs Assessment | Assess the need for a service or product |
| Physical Description | Describe the physical characteristics of a machine, a device, or an object |
| Progress Report | Monitor and control production, sales, shipping, service, or related business process |
| Proposal Report | Identify and describe a problem, suggest one solution, and often, request permission or funding to implement a solution |
| Recommendation Report | Compares several possible “solutions” to a problem and recommends the one that best meets criteria |
| Research Report | Study problems scientifically by developing hypotheses, collecting data, analyzing data, and indicating findings or conclusions |
| Technical Report | Communicate process and product from a technical perspective |
Common Components of Professional Reports
| Component | Explanation / Function |
|---|---|
| Letter of Transmittal | In the case of a printed document, the letter of transmittal typically isn’t bound as part of the report, but rather, is placed on top. The LOT introduction announces the topic and explains who authorized it. The body of the letter briefly describes the project and previews the conclusions. The conclusion closes by expressing appreciation for the opportunity, suggesting follow-up actions, acknowledging the help of others, and offering to answer questions. |
| Cover Page | Often contains stylized title, image, and/or logo of organizations involved. May also introduce the topic with an engaging image. |
| Title Page | Includes the title of the report, author/s and organizational affiliation, date, and organization for whom the report was prepared. |
| List of Figures | The list of figures identifies the titles and page locations of visuals such as figures (graphs, charts, tables), drawings, photos, maps, etc. |
| Table of Contents | A list of report components and page locations. Usually indicates sections and headings. Depending on the length and complexity of the document, may also indicate subheadings and additional secondary/tertiary subdivisions of content. |
|
Abstract (or) Executive Summary
|
Abstracts can be informational (highlight topic, methods, data, and result) or descriptive (topic, methods, and data without conclusions, recommendations, or results) and usually orient the reader to the topic and discussion. Readers use abstracts to determine whether or not they want to read the entire document. Often, abstracts range in length from 200-500 words.
Executive summaries are intended to be “mini” versions of the report, summarizing the entire contents. Readers use executive summaries instead of reading the entire report. Typically, executive summaries are approximately 10% of the length of the report, but no more than ten pages.
|
| Introduction | Introduces the topic of the report and the report itself. May include statements that explain the problem motivating the report, describe the problem’s background and significance, clarify the scope and limitations of the report, review relevant literature, describe data sources, methods, and key terms, preview the report’s organization. |
| Body | Key elements of body include the background, methodology, results, analysis, and recommendations |
| Conclusion | Concise presentation of findings, clearly indicating the main results and their relation to recommended action or outcome. |
| References | Bibliography or Works Cited |
| Appendix | Related supporting materials such as instruments (questionnaires, etc.), data sources, etc. |
Helpful Headings
Headings are standard features of technical documents that serve several important functions:
- Provide organizational overview of the document
- Show logical development of ideas
- Show hierarchical relationship of ideas (headings, sub-headings)
- Allow the reader to scan and read selectively
- Increase readability of the document by providing breaks and white space.
Clear and specific headings (and other kinds of visual/written guides) are important for the busy reader who will scan the report to determine its overall argument or findings, or to find specific sections of interest. The report should be written in a way that allows the reader to start reading in any major section and follow the line of thought.
Headings are navigation signposts that guide readers through documents, to parts of documents, and preview forthcoming information. Headings should be adequate in number/frequency to serve as landmarks of current and forthcoming content. They should be organized hierarchically, using typeface, size, style, and alignment to show different levels of importance, specificity, and relationships.
Topic (Functional) vs. Talking (Explanatory) Headings
There are two main types of headings: Topic (or Functional) Headings and Talking (or Explanatory) Headings.
Topic (functional) headings use terms that describe the function of sections rather than the content of sections. Topic (functional) headings are often terms like “Introduction,” “Background,” “Materials,” “Methodology,” “Results,” “Discussion,” etc. In general, use function headings only in documents—such as lab reports—that have consistent structures.
More reports in professional settings are not “so strictly organized or predictable. Readers will find it much more helpful if headings concretely describe the content of each section rather than the function” (TWE, 3.2 “Headings”).
The most effective talking (or explanatory, or content) “headings use concrete, descriptive language to tell the reader what to expect from the content of each section” (TWE, 3.2 “Headings”).
| Topic Headings (Generic or Functional) |
Talking Headings (Explanatory) |
| Intro | The Question of Health Care for Part-Time Employees |
| Background | Social Media Strategy: Brief History of an Emerging Field |
| Qualifications | What Sports Journalists Need to Succeed |
| Methods | Identification and Selection of Florida Water Samples |
| Conclusions | The Palm Beach Parks Project: Steps to Save the Parks and Lose the Litter |
More on Writing & Organizing Headings
| “Hierarchical Headings” from Typography for Lawyers; provides a great explanation of why writers should use a tiered number system instead of traditional Roman numerals or numbered/lettered hierarchies. | Headings: Make Your Text Scannable, from David McMurray of Online Technical Writing | “Managing Headings in Print and Online Documents” from David K. Farkas from the Department of Technical Communication in the College of Engineering at University of Washington. |
| Headings, by Ginny Redish for PlainLanguage.gov | ||
| “Lesson 6: Using Parallel Form” from Professional Writing Style by Dr. Russel Hirst, Associate Professor and Director of the Technical Communication Program at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. | Headings, from Pearson | Headings from Technical Writing Essentials |
| Headings, from Grand Valley State University | “Subheadings: The Most Useful Technique in Tech Writing” from Tom Johnson at I’d Rather be Writing. |
Examples of Professional Reports
Some examples of professional reports (please browse a few that interest you):
- The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (commonly known as The 9/11 Commission): a report on the circumstances leading up to the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The report also includes recommendations intended to prevent future terrorist attacks.
- Recommendation Report prepared for EPBC Project…: presents the conditions under which the Austrailian Department of the Environment and Water Resources should approve the development of a paper mill in Tasmania.
- Southeast High Speed Rail Study Area Alternatives Recommendation Report, Environmental Impact Statement: regarding a proposed high speed rail system in the southeast United States.
- Evergreen Canopy Walkway Project Feasibility Study: discusses the feasibility of developing a canopy-high (tree-top height) walkway on the campus of Evergreen State College.
- The President’s New Freedom Initiative: The 2007 Progress Report: on progress made in G. W. Bush’s “new freedom initiative” for Americans with disabilities.
- Popeye’s Lousiana Chicken, Inc. 2014 Annual Report: to investors and shareholders.
- New York City Restaurant Owner Manual: released in 2006 under Mayor Michael Bloomberg
Reports: At Risk of Being Boring, Disconnected, & Forgettable
- Successful reports provide relevant information in a coherent narrative; they do not simply list information about the subject
- Successful reports give the reader a clear picture and a solid understanding of the subject of the document
- Make your reports irresistibly interesting
Case Study in Awesome: Warby Parker
Warby Parker’s 2012 Annual Report went viral.
Unfortunately, it’s no longer available on the web. You can see some screenshots at Jarrett Fuller’s website (the designer of the report).
Warby Parker’s 2013 Annual Report carries on their tradition of informative, persuasive, and engaging content. The 2013 report is designed like a calendar, but users can choose to highlight certain types of events such as “milestones,” “do good,” and “data,” by making a selection under the “lists” drop down menu.
The 2014 report adds a new level of audience participation. According to LaughingSquid,
For the past couple of years, Warby Parker, the wonderfully modern eyewear company, has been publishing their annual report with a fun, user interactive flair. For 2014, the company created a “2014 Make-Your-Own Annual Report” generator that builds an individual’s personalized year in review. The report is generated through a short set of somewhat silly questions to determine a person’s Latin motto, top emojis, sleep analysis, spirit animal and more, all for the year 2014. Warby Parker’s own 2014 annual report is linked at the bottom.
Warby Parker is not alone is realizing the value of well-designed, engaging reports: “10 Beautifully Designed Company Annual Reports and the Stats Behind Their Virality.” See also, “The Brave New World of Annual Report Design and how they’re Delivering Business Value.”
