Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Research

autobiography (+ biography) case studies contracts correspondence personal papers (diaries, journals, etc.) dissertations (theses, academic papers) original productions (artistic, dramatic, film)

first-person accounts historical documents (constitutions, bylaws) interviews laboratory data (lab notebooks, etc.) maps meeting minutes original manuscripts original research

patents pictorial works (photographs, paintings) religious documents (holy books, scripture) speeches surveys (survey data, findings) technical reports travel descriptions fiction, poetry, drama

Sources that contain raw, original, non-interpreted and unevaluated information.

Primary sources allow researchers to get as close as possible to original ideas, events, and empirical research. Such sources may include publication of the results of empirical observations, first hand accounts of events, and creative works.

In the humanities and social sciences, primary sources are the direct evidence or first-hand accounts of events without secondary analysis or interpretation. A primary source is a work that was created or written contemporary with the period or subject being studied.

biography criticism interpretation analysis discussion opinions social policy

analysis dissertations (theses, academic papers) editorials film documentaries literature reviews commentaries

journals monographs blog posts commentary tracks study materials teaching materials text reviews

Sources that digest, analyze, evaluate and interpret the information contained within primary (or secondary) sources.

Secondary sources offer an interpretation of information gathered from primary sources and often include commentary, discussion, analysis, and/or argument.

almanacs travel guides field guides timelines Indexes bibliographies concordances databases

handbooks manuals registers statistics tables compilations bibliographic essays bibliographic summaries

chronologies dictionaries encyclopedias directories encyclopedias guidebooks textbooks compendia

Sources that compile, aggregate, summarize, analyze, and digest secondary sources.

May also present subjective commentary and analysis (which are characteristics of secondary sources).

Tertiary sources provide overviews of topics by synthesizing information gathered from other resources. They often provide data in a convenient or condensed form or provide information with context by which to interpret it.

Tertiary sources often include references back to the primary and/or secondary sources. They can be a good place to look up facts or get a general overview of a subject, but they rarely contain original material.

What’s the Difference Between Scholarly & Non-Scholarly Sources? (What to Look For)

	SCHOLARLY	NON-SCHOLARLY
PURPOSE	to inform or persuade scholars; to inform public policy; to guide additional research	to inform or persuade the general public or interested communities; to shape public opinion; to share
AUDIENCE	researchers, academics, faculty, scholars	public
AUTHOR(S)	scholar, researcher, expert	journalist, general writer
PUBLISHER	professional association, university, scholarly press	commercial publisher
INCLUSION	relevance, importance	topical appeal, current events
REVIEW	peer review, blind peer review	editorial, none
DICTION	scholarly, specialized, discipline specific	non-technical, simple, conversational, general
EXAMPLES	scholarly journals, peer reviewed monographs & edited collections	news media, commentary, opinion, personal

Sample Scholarly & Non-Scholarly Sources (By Topic Area)

EXAMPLES	SCHOLARLY	NON-SCHOLARLY
teaching & cheating	Walker, John. “Measuring Plagiarism: Researching What Students Do, Not What They Say They Do.” Studies in Higher Education 35.1 (2010): 41.59.	Wolverton, Brad. “The New Cheating Economy.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. Aug. 28, 2016.
Beyonce & feminism	Durham, Aisha. “”Check On It’: Beyoncé, Southern Booty, and Black Femininities In Music Video.” Feminist Media Studies 12.1 (2012): 35-49.	Crosley, Hillary Coker. “Can We Stop Fighting Over Beyoncé’s Feminism Now?” Jezebel. Dec. 17, 2013.
avocados	Ornelas, Ruth G. “Organized Crime in Michoacán: Rent‐Seeking Activities in the Avocado Export Market.” Politics & Policy. 46.5 (2018): 759-789.	Matei, Adrienne. “Boycotting Mexican Avocados is Not the Best Way to Fight Cartels.” The Guardian. Oct. 31 2019.
paleo diet	Christopher E Pitt. “Cutting Through the Paleo Hype: The Evidence for the Palaeolithic Diet.” Australian Family Physician 45.1/2 (2016): 35-38.	Andrea Sach. “The Paleo Diet Craze: What’s Right and Wrong About Eating Like a Caveman.” Time Magazine. Jan. 7, 2014.
religion	Olson, Daniel V. A. “The Influence of Your Neighbors’ Religions on You, Your Attitudes and Behaviors, and Your Community.” Sociology of Religion 80.2 (2019): 147-167.	Bloom, Paul. “Does Religion Make You Nice?” Slate. Nov. 7, 2008.